Honorouring the Spirits of the Ancestors in Ancient Rome: Parentalia (February 13～21)

In ancient Rome, the month of February was a busy month when it comes to "feriae" (religious celebrations). Many feriae were related to the ancestors in one way or another.

From February 13^th to February 21^st , there were a series of rituals and festivities called the Parentalia. [I] During this period, the Spirits of the Dead, or Di Manes, were believed to come back to the world of the living. [II]

 

The poet Ovidius warned his contemporaries that neglecting the Di Manes, would have consequences: He wrote that once, when the Romans happened to be at war during the Parentalia, they failed to pay their respects at the tombs of the deceased and that night, the "Snimae" (Spirits) came out of Their tombs and voiced Their discontent, howling through the streets of Rome.

The people made sure to conduct the appropriate rites from then on. [III ]

However, even if the spirits were pleased, there was a certain danger associated with Their arrival, because -for at least a certain period during the Parentalia- marriages were not allowed and the temple doors were closed to shield the Gods from the spirits of the dead. [IV]

This kind of taboo also exists in other polytheistic traditions:

In native Japanese “path of the Gods” “Shintō”, it is also customary to shield the Deities from the pollution that is caused by the dead: When someone has passed on in a certain household, the household shrine known in Japanese as kamidana is covered up with a piece of paper for the duration of the mourning period. [V]

References: 
[I] Beard, Mary et al. (1998) Religions of Rome: Volume 2, A Sourcebook. Cambridge University Press: p122.[II] Ovidius. Fasti: Book II: 565.
[III ] Ovidius. Fasti: Book II: 548.[IV] Ovidius. Fasti: Book II: 557.
[V] hakkouden (2016)『神棚封じについて』”Kamidana-fuuji ni tsuite” on youtube.com < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mthNPy6wrfA&t=54s> (retrieved February 12, 2018)

Iemanjá: Afro-Brazilian Goddess of the New Year and the Sea

Happy New Year everyone!

On New Year’s Eve, we were fortunate enough to see some pagan rituals of a tradition that is very much alive. We went to Brazil and witnessed rituals in honour of Iemanjá, a Sea Goddess that is also seen as the Goddess of the New Year.

Fig. 1. From left to right: Pai João (a Preto Velho), Iemanjá and a "figa" (fig sign)

This Orixá (or Deity) has Her origins in West Africa, but is now also venerated on the other side of the Atlantic. Many African slaves kept worshipping the Gods of their homelands and passed down the religious rites to the next generations. [I]

These West African rites were mixed with elements of Catholicism and indigenous American elements resulting in the modern-day religions of Umbanda and Candomblé [II] that attract followers from all races and backgrounds [see video].

Fig. 2. Holiday decoration in a pousada in Paraty, Brazil (figurine of Iemanjá in blue on the mantelpiece).

In Brazil, Alongside Christmas trees and Santa Claus, one can often see blue and white Iemanjá-themed decoration in the hot summer month of December (Fig. 2.) and on New Year’s Eve, many people dress in white (or blue) and go down to the beach for the countdown and the ensuing party.

When we were there, we saw shallow holes dug by celbrants all over the beach, with candles, flowers, incense sticks etc. in them. It truly was an enchanting sight.

Fig. 3. Votive pit with candles and petals for Iemanjá on a beach in Boiçucanga, Brazil.

Regardless of their religion, many people throw a white rose (or a similar offering) in the sea for Iemanjá and then jump over seven waves, quietly making a wish for the coming year every time they jump a wave.

Iemanjá is one of the 7 main Orixás, but there are many more interesting divinities, spirits and symbols in Brazilian folklore. I particularly like the Pretos Velhos or “Old Blacks” which are seen as wise, benevolent spirits that were African slaves during their lifetime. [III]

One example of such a Preto Velho is Pai João or “Father John” [IV] who is typically depicted seated, smoking a pipe.(Fig. 1.)

Sources:[I] Boyce Davies, Carole (2008) Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. A-C. Volume 1, Volume 2. ABC-CLIO: p257.[II] Jenkins, Willis J. et al. (2016) Routledge Handbook of Religion and Ecology. Routledge: p193.[III] Anthony Appiah, Kwame & Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (2005) Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Oxford University Press: p584.[IV] Molina, N.A. (2015) Livro de Feitiços de Preto Velho. Livropostal: p16.]

The Companions of Saint Nicholas (2/2) Zwarte Piet: Racist Stereotype or Demon out of a Sleep Paralysis Episode?

It took many centuries for Saint Nicholas and His companion to take their modern form.

First of all, when it comes to the macabre winter celebration, what people were looking for was a boogieman figure to frighten children into obedience (“If you don’t go to bed now, he will come for you!” “If you don’t study hard enough, he’ll come and get you.”).

Sleep Paralysis Archetypes

Depending on what region or even what village you were in, the form, name and companion of this boogieman differed much more than it does today, but it is very remarkable that they all seem to draw from the archetypes that are often reported by people who suffer from sleep paralysis.

For people who are unfamiliar with sleep paralysis, it is something that happens to certain people when they are about to fall asleep or about to wake up. During a sleep paralysis episode, one’s brain is only partially asleep resulting in the illusion that one is fully awake, but unable to move. [I]

Elements of actual dreams seem to seep into reality as terrifying hallucinations of figures standing next to one’s bed or sitting on one's chest. [II]

The exact appearance of the figures (that appear during a sleep paralysis episode), seems to depend on the culture, but in western countries, the most common types are the following: 

The Old Hag

A stereotypical witch.We can see Her in Italian folklore: La Befana may not be an assistant of Saint Nicholas, but She has a scary appearance and visits children to bring gift at the beginning of the New Year.

 

The Bearded Man

Another archetype is the bearded man. [III]

Saint Nicholas Himself falls into this archetype, but also like Knecht Ruprecht, some versions of Père Fouettard, Houseker, etc.

The Horned Man

Also frequently reported is the horned man. [IV] The companion that corresponds with this most clearly is Krampus of course, but there are traces of horned companions in other regions too.

In one account from the late 18^th century, a man from Groningen (Netherlands) tries to convince his readers that the tradition of enacting Saint Nicholas visits is simply too terrifying and even harmful to children. He recounts a childhood memory: on the night of the 5^th of December, a man with a mask and cow horns, draped in a cow skin unexpectedly entered his residence. While making a lot of noise with his wooden clogs and the chain he had tied around his waist, the spectre-like appearance said: “Are there any bad children here?” [V]  

Much later, we can still find a trace of horned creatures associated with Saint Nicholas in the Low Countries as this photograph from 1939, taken in Mechelen (Belgium) testifies.

The Shadow Man

The next archetype is probably also the most common one: the shadow man, a pitch black figure, with or without a hat. Like we have mentioned before, the blackened face is common among most types of helpers of Saint Nicholas: Krampus, Knecht Ruprecht, Schmützli, Houseker, Père Fouettard, and Zwarte Piet.

 

In the case of Zwarte Piet however, His afro textured hair and in some portrayals exaggerated big lips and face make up that is dark brown, rather than black, makes it hard to deny that stereotypes of Sub Sahara Africans have been involved. Although, the explicit mentions of African roots are very rare. The explanation that His skin was dark because of the sooth from the chimney seems to have been around for more than a few years.

Zwarte Piet = an African Man?

It has been perceived as problematic for a while that a servant in chains who was feared by many children, also looked like a stereotypical African, so this has definitively influenced recent changes in His character and even appearance. Rather than a scary, aggressive servant, Zwarte Piet is now a sweet and funny entertainer who happens to be the co-worker and friend of Saint Nicholas. At first, His appearance had not been adapted to the story of the chimney sooth yet, but in recent years elements that make Zwarte Piet look like a stereotypical depiction of a Black African man, are starting to get omitted.

Zwarte Piet = a Devil?

Neither the theory of an African origin, nor the theory of chimney sooth on His face, seem to explain why this black figure emerged in Saint Nicholas Lore though. Every Sleep Paralysis archetype can be found in the Saint Nicholas Lore, but who else were witches, a black face, horns and shaggy hair associated with throughout the Middle Ages? The Christian Devil of course! And consequently demons in general.

In the case of Krampus, it is very clear that the iconography of the medieval devil has something to do with it, but is Zwarte Piet really a devil too? He is, so it seems! Several Dutch books from the 18^th and 19^th century indicate that “Zwarte Piet” was understood to be a name for the Devil before He became the companion of Sinterklaas. [VI] [VII]

Another book from the 19^th century does not mention “Zwarte Piet” or Saint Nicholas either, but the Devil is depicted in a way that is strikingly similar to how Zwarte Piet is portrayed in the Low Countries today. It is therefore clear, we believe, that the macabre helpers of Saint Nicholas all derived from depictions of the Devil. [VIII]

The Woodland Deity Pan / Faunus

The typical physical traits seen in medieval depictions of the Devil are not really based on the Bible  [IX], it appears. An important source of inspiration was almost certainly the pre-Christian woodland Deity Pan. We believe that this Deity was easiest to demonise because it perfectly combines several scary archetypes that live in our subconscious and are encountered during sleep paralysis, so reports from one’s environment add credibility to its existence. Perhaps even the ancients themselves got their inspiration for depictions of Pan from sleep paralysis? It is no coincidence that the English word “panic” derived from the name of this Deity.

Faunalia Rustica
Just one remarkable fact to end with: Saint Nicholas and His helper are believed to visit the homes were children live on the night of December 5^th and in ancient Roman countryside on that very day there were celebrations in honour of Faunus, the Latin name for Pan. [X]

Sources
[I] Sharpless, Brian A. & Karl Doghramji (2015) Sleep Paralysis: Historical, Psychological, and Medical Perspectives. Oxford University Press: p5.]
[II] Ascher, Rodney (director) (2015) The Nightmare. USA: Campfire, Zipper Bros Films.]
[III] Top, Stefaan (2007 ) Op verhaal komen: Sagen uit de provincie Antwerpen: p66, n°41.]
[IV] Alessandro Frosali (2015) Incubus | Short Horror Film (YouTube.com).]
[V] Weekblad voor de zoo genaamden gemeenen man (1798, eerste deel, tweede druk) Groningen: Departement stad en lande behoorende tot de maatschappij tot nut van 't algemeen: pp5-6.]
[VI] Bom, G & D. de Groot (1758) De bespookte waereld ontspookt. De duivel geroskamt, en het euangelie van den spinnerok weerlegt.: p30.]
[VII] Niermeyer, Antonie (1840) Verhandeling over het booze wezen in het bijgeloof onzer natie: eene bijdrage tot de kennis onzer voorvaderlijke mythologie, Volume 1: Amsterdam: Wijnands: p22.
[VIII] Lesage, A.R. (1830) De duivel op krukken: Eerste deel. Leeuwarden: H.C. Schetsberg: p8 (based on a French original)
[IX] Ezek. 10:8
[X] Horatius Flaccus, Q. (Horace). Odes: 3.18.