The Companions of Saint Nicholas (2/2) Zwarte Piet: Racist Stereotype or Demon out of a Sleep Paralysis Episode?

It took many centuries for Saint Nicholas and His companion to take their modern form.

First of all, when it comes to the macabre winter celebration, what people were looking for was a boogieman figure to frighten children into obedience (“If you don’t go to bed now, he will come for you!” “If you don’t study hard enough, he’ll come and get you.”).

Sleep Paralysis Archetypes

Depending on what region or even what village you were in, the form, name and companion of this boogieman differed much more than it does today, but it is very remarkable that they all seem to draw from the archetypes that are often reported by people who suffer from sleep paralysis.

For people who are unfamiliar with sleep paralysis, it is something that happens to certain people when they are about to fall asleep or about to wake up. During a sleep paralysis episode, one’s brain is only partially asleep resulting in the illusion that one is fully awake, but unable to move. [I]

Elements of actual dreams seem to seep into reality as terrifying hallucinations of figures standing next to one’s bed or sitting on one's chest. [II]

The exact appearance of the figures (that appear during a sleep paralysis episode), seems to depend on the culture, but in western countries, the most common types are the following: 

The Old Hag

A stereotypical witch.We can see Her in Italian folklore: La Befana may not be an assistant of Saint Nicholas, but She has a scary appearance and visits children to bring gift at the beginning of the New Year.

 

The Bearded Man

Another archetype is the bearded man. [III]

Saint Nicholas Himself falls into this archetype, but also like Knecht Ruprecht, some versions of Père Fouettard, Houseker, etc.

The Horned Man

Also frequently reported is the horned man. [IV] The companion that corresponds with this most clearly is Krampus of course, but there are traces of horned companions in other regions too.

In one account from the late 18^th century, a man from Groningen (Netherlands) tries to convince his readers that the tradition of enacting Saint Nicholas visits is simply too terrifying and even harmful to children. He recounts a childhood memory: on the night of the 5^th of December, a man with a mask and cow horns, draped in a cow skin unexpectedly entered his residence. While making a lot of noise with his wooden clogs and the chain he had tied around his waist, the spectre-like appearance said: “Are there any bad children here?” [V]  

Much later, we can still find a trace of horned creatures associated with Saint Nicholas in the Low Countries as this photograph from 1939, taken in Mechelen (Belgium) testifies.

The Shadow Man

The next archetype is probably also the most common one: the shadow man, a pitch black figure, with or without a hat. Like we have mentioned before, the blackened face is common among most types of helpers of Saint Nicholas: Krampus, Knecht Ruprecht, Schmützli, Houseker, Père Fouettard, and Zwarte Piet.

 

In the case of Zwarte Piet however, His afro textured hair and in some portrayals exaggerated big lips and face make up that is dark brown, rather than black, makes it hard to deny that stereotypes of Sub Sahara Africans have been involved. Although, the explicit mentions of African roots are very rare. The explanation that His skin was dark because of the sooth from the chimney seems to have been around for more than a few years.

Zwarte Piet = an African Man?

It has been perceived as problematic for a while that a servant in chains who was feared by many children, also looked like a stereotypical African, so this has definitively influenced recent changes in His character and even appearance. Rather than a scary, aggressive servant, Zwarte Piet is now a sweet and funny entertainer who happens to be the co-worker and friend of Saint Nicholas. At first, His appearance had not been adapted to the story of the chimney sooth yet, but in recent years elements that make Zwarte Piet look like a stereotypical depiction of a Black African man, are starting to get omitted.

Zwarte Piet = a Devil?

Neither the theory of an African origin, nor the theory of chimney sooth on His face, seem to explain why this black figure emerged in Saint Nicholas Lore though. Every Sleep Paralysis archetype can be found in the Saint Nicholas Lore, but who else were witches, a black face, horns and shaggy hair associated with throughout the Middle Ages? The Christian Devil of course! And consequently demons in general.

In the case of Krampus, it is very clear that the iconography of the medieval devil has something to do with it, but is Zwarte Piet really a devil too? He is, so it seems! Several Dutch books from the 18^th and 19^th century indicate that “Zwarte Piet” was understood to be a name for the Devil before He became the companion of Sinterklaas. [VI] [VII]

Another book from the 19^th century does not mention “Zwarte Piet” or Saint Nicholas either, but the Devil is depicted in a way that is strikingly similar to how Zwarte Piet is portrayed in the Low Countries today. It is therefore clear, we believe, that the macabre helpers of Saint Nicholas all derived from depictions of the Devil. [VIII]

The Woodland Deity Pan / Faunus

The typical physical traits seen in medieval depictions of the Devil are not really based on the Bible  [IX], it appears. An important source of inspiration was almost certainly the pre-Christian woodland Deity Pan. We believe that this Deity was easiest to demonise because it perfectly combines several scary archetypes that live in our subconscious and are encountered during sleep paralysis, so reports from one’s environment add credibility to its existence. Perhaps even the ancients themselves got their inspiration for depictions of Pan from sleep paralysis? It is no coincidence that the English word “panic” derived from the name of this Deity.

Faunalia Rustica
Just one remarkable fact to end with: Saint Nicholas and His helper are believed to visit the homes were children live on the night of December 5^th and in ancient Roman countryside on that very day there were celebrations in honour of Faunus, the Latin name for Pan. [X]

Sources
[I] Sharpless, Brian A. & Karl Doghramji (2015) Sleep Paralysis: Historical, Psychological, and Medical Perspectives. Oxford University Press: p5.]
[II] Ascher, Rodney (director) (2015) The Nightmare. USA: Campfire, Zipper Bros Films.]
[III] Top, Stefaan (2007 ) Op verhaal komen: Sagen uit de provincie Antwerpen: p66, n°41.]
[IV] Alessandro Frosali (2015) Incubus | Short Horror Film (YouTube.com).]
[V] Weekblad voor de zoo genaamden gemeenen man (1798, eerste deel, tweede druk) Groningen: Departement stad en lande behoorende tot de maatschappij tot nut van 't algemeen: pp5-6.]
[VI] Bom, G & D. de Groot (1758) De bespookte waereld ontspookt. De duivel geroskamt, en het euangelie van den spinnerok weerlegt.: p30.]
[VII] Niermeyer, Antonie (1840) Verhandeling over het booze wezen in het bijgeloof onzer natie: eene bijdrage tot de kennis onzer voorvaderlijke mythologie, Volume 1: Amsterdam: Wijnands: p22.
[VIII] Lesage, A.R. (1830) De duivel op krukken: Eerste deel. Leeuwarden: H.C. Schetsberg: p8 (based on a French original)
[IX] Ezek. 10:8
[X] Horatius Flaccus, Q. (Horace). Odes: 3.18.

The Companions of Saint Nicholas in Europe

Introduction

In North America, Santa Claus is assisted by the benign Christmas Elves, but in much of Europe His helpers are a little bit more fear-inducing. Before we talk about the helpers themselves, let us back up and look at the environment that gave birth to these helpers.

Traditionally, there wasn’t much agricultural activity during the winter months in Europe, so as a result people had a lot of free time on their hands to tell each other stories and contribute to folklore. Generally speaking, most of European folklore that is associated with the period between the end of October (Halloween) and the beginning of January (Three Kings’ Day) belong to one of the following categories:

❶ “Cheerful Winter Celebration”

→ drinking, playing games, exchanging gifts…

❷ “Macabre Winter Celebration”

→ scaring one another, remembering the dead…

The act of dressing up, or “guising”, is something that is commonly seen in traditions of both ❶ and ❷.

Saint Nicholas and His Helpers

In many European countries, especially those that used to be a part of the Holy Roman Empire, cheerful winter celebration and macabre winter celebration come together in the folklore of Saint Nicholas and His scary companion.

⑴ Krampus / Klaubauf / Čert

The Alpine regions are without a doubt home to the scariest companion of Saint Nicholas: Krampus, a hairy monster with goat horns. He’s typically depicted in chains, wielding a birch rod. On His back, he carries a basket in which He puts presents or naughty children.

⑵ Christkind / Andel

In some parts of Europe an angel joins the duo. In protestant areas, this angel is typically interpreted as baby Jesus even though a young girl often plays the role. She may replace Krampus, appear with another helper, or even alone.

⑶ Knecht Ruprecht / Hans Muff / Hans Trapp / Père Fouettard

In many different regions, a man with a hood or hat and a long beard assists Saint Nicholas. He carries the same attributes as Krampus. In Germany, He is called Knecht Ruprecht (“servant Ruprecht”, Hans Muff or. In the Northern part as well as in the Eastern part of France, He may be called Hans Trapp (German) or Père Fouettard (French: “Father Whipper”). In Luxembourg, His name is Houseker and in Switzerland, it is Schmutzli (German) or also Père Fouettard (French).

⑷ Zwarte Piet / Père Fouettard

Both the bearded companions and the horned companions are often portrayed with a black face and that is the trait that has become the most notable feature in Saint Nicholas’ companion in the Netherlands and Belgium.

In the Dutch-speaking areas (Netherlands + Flanders), He is referred to as Zwarte Piet (“Black Pete”) and in the French-speaking South of Belgium (Wallonia), He has a similar appearance, but is referred to as Père Fouettard (“Father Whipper”) as well. In the city of Liège, He is called Hanscrouf.

Before the duo Saint Nicholas and Zwarte Piet became the standard, several similar traditions of boogieman gift bringers existed alongside each other. As it was key to become unrecognisable, masks were used [I]. If none were available, the face was often blackened instead. In some areas, Saint Nicholas Himself was even black! [II]  There are records of Saint Nicholas being referred to as “Zwarte Klaas” (“Black Nicholas”). [III]

Traditionally, Zwarte Piet also carried a birch rod and chains, but as His character has moved away from the aggressive boogieman, the chain and birch rod are almost always absent these days.

In recent years, there has been much debate revolving around Zwarte Piet as his appearance is perceived to be offensive to people with African roots by some, but more about that in my next blog post!

References:[I] Zuidema, W. (1797) Weekblad voor den zoo genaamden gemeenen man: Volume 1: (8).
[II] (1829) De Nederlandsche kindervriend: in gedichtjes voor de welopgevoede jeugd. Amsterdam: Gebroeders Van Arum: p74-75.
[III] Van Lennep, Jacob (1868) De uithangteekens in verband met geschiedenis en volksleven beschouwd. Amsterdam: Gebroeders Kraay: p119

The Green Man: a Pagan Relic of Roman Times?

Have you ever heard of the Green Man?

A Green Man is drawing or carving of a human face with either leaves instead of hair or leaves spewing out of the facial cavities.

If you live in a city in Europe or the New World with buildings dating to the 19^th century or earlier, chances are you have already seen one, but if you have not, you are very likely to spot one once you start paying attention to the doors and façades of old buildings. [Fig. ❶]

The meaning of these Green Men has been much debated and reinterpreted, but it is often implied that He was a Pagan Deity that continued to be worshipped in secret and survived Christianisation.

Fig. ❶ Green Man on a balcony, Leuven (Belgium)

Fig. ❷ Green Men throughout Europe and the New World, 19th～early 20th century buildings

One is most likely to encounter Green Men on 19^th and early 20^th century buildings as they were quite popular back then and there are still plenty of buildings around from that era.[Fig. ❷]

Fig. ❸ Green Men on mantelpieces: Museum Het Rembrandthuis in Amsterdam (the Netherlands) and Kasteel van Arenberg in Leuven (Belgium)

With some luck, one might be able to find one on a mantelpiece in a 17^th or 18^th century house. [Fig. ❸] 

Around where the author lives, they are quite common on the doors of churches and the like [Fig. ❹❺❻].

 

Fig. ❹ Green Men on Doors in Leuven and Antwerp (Belgium), 17th or 18th century?

Fig. ❺ Green Man on a Door in Leuven (Belgium), 17th or 18th century?

Fig. ❻ Green Man on a Door of Saint George's Church in Antwerp (Belgium), 17th or 18th century?

On the doors depicted on [Fig. ❺], the Green Man serves as a plinth for the Virgin Mary and Baby Jesus. These two characters from Christian mythology standing as conquerors on top of a non-Christian creature may indicate that the sculptor wanted this Green Man to represent a Pagan deity, but was there in fact a deity that was depicted in this manner in pre-Christian Europe?

Modern writers and sellers of home and garden decoration often describe the Green Man as a representation of the Wine God Bacchus. [I]

The reason for this assumption seems to be the fact that the Greeks and Romans typically depicted Bacchus with a wreath of ivy on top of His head [Fig. ❼], but the author finds this far from convincing: a wreath on top of a human head is not at all the same thing as a half-man half-foliage creature and moreover, Bacchus is typically depicted as a beautiful man, while the Green Man usually has more grotesque features.

Fig. ❼ Bacchus / ΔΙΟΝΥΣΟΣ 【Dionysos】 VS the Green Man,
 photograph Bacchus mask by Bibi Saint-Pol, Green Man carving from a door in Cartagena (Spain)

Fig. ❽ Faunus / ΠΑΝ 【Pan】 VS Green Man, Faunus mask by VIATOR IMPERI, Green Man from Cologne (Germany)

 

 

A Greco-Roman Deity that often does have grotesque features and is also sometimes equated with the Green man is the woodland Deity Faunus. [Fig. ❽] However, Faunus is not depicted with foliage around His face and –unlike the Green Man- He has goat-horns.

Similarly we can rule out the Celtic Deity Cernunnos, who was probably depicted with antlers. [II]

According to another and somewhat more plausible theory, the origin of the medieval Green Man lies in the Graeco-Roman depictions of water deities like Oceanus or Achelous.

However, unlike the Green Man, Oceanus was typically depicted with crab pincers for horns and Achelous had bullhorns. By the way, one of them was broken off by Hercules and turned into the cornu copiae (“the horn of plenty”).

But does this mean that the Green Man was a medieval invention that is unrelated to Antiquity?
Not quite, it seems!

Fig. ❾ Great Dish from the Mildenhall treasure (United Kingdom, 4th century CE), original photograph by JMiall

There are many Roman mosaics and carvings that fit the description of the Green Man, but it is not always clear whom they represent. Let us examine a a few examples.

A very clear example of a Green Man-like creature can be seen on the “Great Dish” of the Mildenhall treasure. [Fig. ❾❿]

As Bacchus and Faunus also make their appearance on the same dish, it is very clear that the face in the middle is not meant to represent the Wine God nor His horned friend. [Fig. ❾]

Fig. ❿ Great Dish from the Mildenhall treasure (United Kingdom, 4th century CE), original photograph by JMiall

There are however several clues that imply He is a water Deity:
* the seashells all around Him that separate the middle part of the dish from the Bacchic scenes around it

* the dolphins emerging from His beard

* sea nymph (Nereis, plural: Nereides) riding a half-horse half-fish creature called a Hippocampus

* Nereis riding a Sea God, probably Phorcus.

In this case, the Green Man obviously represents a water Deity, most likely Oceanus.

The author has encountered several similar Roman depictions of a Green Man-like creature where the marine wildlife also points towards Oceanus.

Fig.⓫ Roman reliefs featuring Green Man-like foliate heads (1st～5th century CE)

Other times however such elements are absent and yet other times elements that are not particularly sea-related are present instead. [Fig.⓫] Is this also Oceanus? Or is it perhaps a lesser known vegetation Deity that was depicted in a similar fashion?

Conclusion
In any case, whether they are surrounded by marine wildlife or not, it seems that Roman Green Men were primarily decorative in nature, rather than devotional.

At best, they may have had some kind apotropaic function (in other words, perhaps they were believed to ward off evil, like the face of Medusa).

So is the Green Man of the Middle Ages and later a Pagan Deity that escaped Christianisation?

Yes and no. The visual similarity is striking enough to suspect that the first Medieval Green Men were made by people who had seen foliate heads on old Roman buildings or graves, but it is conceivable that they were no longer aware of whom they were supposed to depict. In that case, we cannot say the Deity survived Christianization.

Roman Green Men did not seem to have a devotional function to begin with, but if even the myths that were attached to them were forgotten, there is not much left there that can be called Pagan. It is almost no more Pagan than other architectural features that were popularised in Antiquity like say a Corinthian column, or a tympanum.

Nonetheless, the idea of Oceanus quietly hiding in churches, waiting to be rediscovered by future generations is quite appealing.

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Reference:
[I] An example of an unconvincing conflation of Bacchus and the Green Man can be found in:
Grimassi, Raven (2000) Encyclopedia of Wicca & Witchcraft. Body, Mind & Spirit: p40.
[II] Green, Miranda (2003) Symbol and Image in Celtic Religious Art. Routledge: p89.